What is Artificial Womb?
Generations can only be continued if we have children. Children are the ultimate source of happiness in our life. Approximately, 12% of women between 15-44 years of age have problems in getting pregnant or carrying the baby to term in the United States, according to the Centre for Disease Control. Infertility is not the problem of today, it has been there since ages. Alternative to natural conceiving, there are alternative methods of getting pregnant or having child and technology has major role in it.
Technology has contributed to a lot to the modern society and it is obvious that it will do in the future also. In this regard, the most discussed topic and on the process of development is ‘artificial womb’. It is also called as ectogenesis scientifically, a term coined by J.B.S Haldane in 1924. Ectogenesis is generally defined as the ‘extrauterine gestation of human foetuses from conception to birth. This will be achieved by combination of two current different technologies: In vitro fertilization (IVF) and artificial incubation, writes Kendal in her book Equal Opportunity and the Case for State Sponsored Ectogenesis.
Philip von Hohenheim imagined and wrote about the development of human in an artificial environment back long on sixteenth century in Paracelsus. Ectogenesis has been discussed as a possible tehnological development since twentieth century. Various researches are going on this area to bring this technology into reality and the ethical considerations of the technology is disputed by ethicists, physicians, scientists, philosophers and advocates.
Needs and Benefits
Kendal writes that there are many physical and psychological burdens associated with pregnancy and childbirth. It involves different health risks, common including dizziness, headaches, morning sickness, bone and muscle aches, loss of visual acuity, breathlessness, heartburn, bleeding gums, haemorrhoids and varicose veins. Often these are failed to be acknowledged considering them as the general symptoms related to pregnancy. According to CDC, anemia, urinary tract infections (UTI), mental health conditions, gestational diabetes, obesity and weight gain and preeclampsia, miscarriage, preterm labor are of major concern that affect many women and vaginal tearing and psychological trauma are equally frightening. Maternal morbidity result from or are aggravated by pregnancy and have an adverse effect on a woman’ health. In United States, more than 50,000 women are affected every year. Kendal further writes stating World Health Organization that about 15 percent of all pregnant women will develop a ‘potentially life-threatening complication’ as a direct result of their reproductive enterprise.
Burdens of pregnancy are not limited to physical pain and injury. In many cases, women are also expected to change their diet and routine works during pregnancy. This change may become a problem in women who smoke, drink alcohol or are immune-compromised. Change in food style increases the chance of food related parasitic infection. Currently, avoiding pregnancy and childbirth is the only way to abstain from pregnancy related pains and trauma. Besides these discomfort, women put extra weight disfiguring their body. Due refrain from regular job, they incur economic loss. According to Stabile, it is worth to consider the established rights of woman for reproductive autonomy with technological advance.
Study done by Kanazawa showed that no matter how educated with greater occupational satisfaction, better couple communication, childless couples are often made to feel socially inferior to parents than their childrearing counterparts. Ectogenesis would provide an autonomy in reproduction to both women and men.
In vitro fertilization (IVF) is the fusion of a woman’s egg and a man’s sperm in laboratory set up. The first baby was Louise Brown, born in 1978 using this technique. Since then the process has seen some changes with some improvements. However, the chances of pregnancy has gone up by 1% or 2% over the course of 35 years, according to a report of Time Magzine. The general procedure for IVF is the stimulation of ovary using fertility drugs to induce egg production, egg is retrieved by follicular aspiration using anaesthesia, and fertilization of egg is done with sperm in artificially controlled environment which develops into embryo. This embryo is then transferred into woman’s womb after 3-5 days of fertilization where it develops into baby.
Bulleti writes that in 1982, in Bologna, Italy, the first attempt to assist the implantation of human embryos outside of human body were done and continued in 1983 at Mount Sinai Hospital in New York City, the result were published were in 1986, though the warm air incubators were reported to be first used at Paris Maternite Hospital in 1880, as according to Kendal. The first rabbit- to-rabbit embryo transfer was done by Walter Heape in 1890. In 1913, Albert Brachet then did the first successful attempt to culture mammalian embryos in vitro. This research was expanded by Gregory Pincus during mid1930s, achieving the first rabbit IVF pregnancy which cost him his position at Harvard University. Pincus was vilified in the New York Times after this incident and was labelled as ‘Dr. Frankenstein’ for generating possibility of creating ‘soulless’ human using IVF in people’s eye. However, IVF became widely tolerated following Brown’s birth and its subsequent improvement and the attempts since 1950s to create an artificial uterus has seen significant advances so for but it’s only in recent years, according to Kendal.
Possibilities and Challenges
In animal research, ectogenesis has already been practiced. A species preservation project in Australia for preventing grey nurse shark has been done. An artificial incubator of acrylic tank was used for late stage embryos development of the smaller wobbegong shark which resulted in a viable off-spring that did not differ extensively from naturally gestated controls. Similarly, Japanese scientists were successful in maintaining goat foetuses for weeks in a machine containing artificial amniotic fluid during the mid-1990s (Genetic Literacy Project). According to Kendal, human uteri have also been successfully extracted and functionally maintained for limited periods of time. However, artificial or transplanted uteri have shown very little viable support to growing embryos from hours to week. Supplying nutrients and blood to the developing foetus is the greatest challenge in acquiring full ectogenesis and this can be overcome by developing artificial placenta. Though transplanted placenta when attached to artificial uterus has been found to be functional, further research is required in order to develop the foetus totally ex vivo.
Quoting the statement released by New York Academy of Science in 2011, Kendal further writes their claim about successful completion of partial ectogensis supporting the development of a foetus between 14 and 35 weeks of gestation ‘within the reach of their current knowledge and existing tool.’ Regarding development of full ectogenesis, researchers generally believe that three technical requirements can fulfil the current deficiencies of artificial womb to complete the substitute for in utero gestation. Firstly, the vessel needed for embryo implantation, secondly, the replacement of amniotic fluid and the last one is artificial placenta. Biotechnology and nanotechnology are the two most important sector that need to be developed for this purpose. Dvorsky writes that to track the development of growing foetus and for automatic adjustment, computer system and monitoring devices should also be developed.
Artificial endometrium lining the artificial uterus resembling the natural one would be of prime importance. Endometrium acts as the attaching layer for blastocyst. This should be of glandular layer made up of original tissue so that a blastocyst could be implanted 3 to 4 mm deep where it develop further. Hung-Ching Liu, from Cornell University, has already prepared a co-culture system that used stromal cells and stromal cells. Her work is believed to the first actual attempt in developing an artificial womb, according to Dvorsky.
The artificial amniotic fluid would not be a major problem as Japanese scientists have made and succeeded in it with goat foetus through a process known as extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO). ECMO has shown limited success recently with treating premature babies because of its size making it unfit for small infants. In 2011, Jutta Arens and co-workers developed a miniaturised oxygenator, a system of extracorporeal gas exchange, they believe, will act similar to that which naturally occurs between the foetus and placenta, is a breakthrough in this sector. This technology can provide sufficient air to keep the baby alive.
However, the artificial placenta is the major challenge so far. Naturally, placenta develops from the cells surrounding the embryo itself. The placenta connects the foetus to the uterine wall via umbilicus allowing permission of nutrients, antibodies transfer from mother & gas exchange through blood supply and the elimination of wastes. So, the placenta supporting all these functions will be needed and should be fully functional for good health of the baby. The benefits of artificial can only be enjoyed if we will be able to overcome these issues both theoretically and practically.
Other challenges include funding and ethical concern for the research. Many developed countries have not permitted to do experiments on human embryo. So, funds for research is lacking which is definitely not good for the technology’s further development.
Ethical Issues
Complications are not limited to basic technical requirements only. According to reillytop10, artificial womb is one of the top 10 ethical dilemmas and policy issues in science and technology. Various issues are related to artificial womb. A feminist has a view point whereas religious aspects, social values, financial issues are also related with artificial womb.
Different feminist share different ideologies regarding ectogenesis. Some well-known figures such as Robyn Rowland, Gena Corea, Andrea Dworkin and Barbara Katz Rowland consider the technological interference in reproduction as a threat to women’s liberty, written by Kendal. Zimmerman and Arditi also agree that the control of technology by men is imposing unnecessarily on women’s bodies. According to Corea, men will use artificial reproductive technology to eliminate women entirely, or to create a breeder sub-class of women whose reproductive labour can be purchased in much the same way as sexual favours are exchanged in brothels. Some other radical feminist believe that natural pregnancy and the social conditions regarding pregnancy are the major cause of women’s oppression.
According to some strong feminist, women’s liberty would be increased if ectogenesis came into existence. Suzzane Dixon (1922) writes that patriarchal societies have often dominated and enforced the different sexual behaviour for men than women. Female chastity and treatment of women as the commodities are the key cause of female oppression in the society. Kendal writes in her book that it not a justifiable to abandon the goal of ectogensis, but rather other social changes need to accompany it, including an increased awareness of women’s value in society above and beyond their reproductive capacity.
Some people believe that childbirth make a woman to realize her motherhood and motherhood makes her special in the society. Motherhood is the reason that women can feel proud of themselves for continuing generations. Ectogenesis may decrease the value of motherhood and ultimately challenge the value of life.
With the advancement of technology, human reproduction would be have completely different view. The Sun reports that humanoid sex robots are on the phases of development and possibly by 2025, they might be on the market and the sex dummies are already there in the market. This certainly would definitely create an environment where we may not need a real human sex partner. This will lead to less interaction among human beings and may change the structure of the society.
Catholics belief is full personhood and ensoulment occur at the moment of conception and remain until the moment of natural death. Previous babies born of IVF were thought to lack soul. However, this belief was abandoned after the birth of Brown that showed that IVF children developed the same as naturally conceived children, according to Krauss.
According to Kendal, after 1980 and the late 1990s, both Sunni Muslims and Shiite Muslims have allowed to use donor gametes respectively, as long as traditional Islamic codes for parenthood and inheritance are observed. Judaism also share the similar view and officially support the transfer of embryo. Hinduism, Buddhism and many denominations with Christianity have also embraced IVF and other ARTs to varying degrees. However, it is difficult predict how these religious groups would react to ectogenesis. Though it seems that many moral right (both secular and religious) would oppose the advent of this technology because it challenges traditional notions of the family.
Ectogenesis highly reduces the chances of likelihood of a premature infant’s death when the infant can be transferred to an artificial uterus to complete its growth. This can help to overcome the various pregnancy related complications in female including miscarriage, drug problems and pollutants. This can prevent the infant from genetic disorders and inadequate nutrition by providing it to growing foetus into an artificial womb, according to Ishak.
Conclusion
Given the advances in technology, it is likely that it soon will be possible to use ectogenesis. So far, ectogenesis has realized its partial success. This future technology is still more to go so that it can support the growth and development of babies completely. The technical challenge like fully functional artificial placenta’s development is still a major one.
Various groups are arising questions regarding ethical concerns of this technology. All the new coming technologies have bad aspects along with good one. The scientific community, ethicist, feminist, philosophers, social workers and advocates, all need to reach a conclusion so that maximum benefits can be taken from the technology.
References
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